Clint Eastwood’s 2008 film Changeling provides a good example of how methods like 3D character animation, motion capture, MASSIVE, and digital set extensions can be used “invisibly” for historical realism. Beyond these high-concept spectacles, however, the rapid advancement and decreasing cost of digital technologies has led to the ubiquity of digital visual effects in all kinds of films, converting “special” effects into commonplace tools. Less than a decade later, films like Avatar and Hugo took digital effects to dazzling new stereoscopic heights, while Life of Pi stood as the apotheosis of advances in particle effects like water and fur. In the first years of the new century, the Lord of the Rings films exemplified this trend, introducing groundbreaking new digital technologies, such as the motion-capture techniques that allowed Andy Serkis to perform as the digital character Gollum, and MASSIVE, a software package that uses fuzzy logic to create thousands of autonomous digital extras.
Since 2000, digital visual effects have played a central role in Hollywood’s governing business model of developing high-budget blockbuster franchises like Star Wars, Harry Potter, Pirates of the Caribbean, Transformers, and the Avengers-universe films.
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